The last of the Achamaenids was Darius II who after an exchange of insulting presents with Alexander the Great was finally defeated in battle by Alexander and later assassinated by his own generals. Tradition has it that the Kuh-e-Sofeh, the mountain which dominates Isfahan from the south, was the scene of this battle which Darius watched from its slopes.
From the architectural point of view the most important is Fakhr-al-Daula, whose minister Saheb Ibn-e-Abbad erected this gateway to a mosque which is now adjacent to the Masjed-e-Hakim.
The Kakuyid ruler Ala' al-Daula Muhammad (1008-1041/2) patronised Avicenna and encouraged him to establish his school in Isfahan. He extended the fortifications of Isfahan and erected twelve metal covered gates as a defence against the marauding Turkomen tribesmen. Shortly before his death he declared allegiance to the Seljuks who by now occupied most of central Iran. His son Faramurz eventually yielded up Isfahan to the Seljuk leader, Toghril Beg, after a long seige during which the inhabitants used wood from the Masjed-e-Jomeh was used to keep themselves warm.
Malek Shah's generals further extended the boundaries to the borders of China and a period of prosperity ensued under the guidance of Nizam-ul-Mulk. At the age of ninety the latter was discredited at the orders of the principal sultana, Toorkan Khatoon, who feared he would oppose her son's accession to the throne, and killed by a follower of Hassan Sabah, the leader of the mountain tribe of Assassins. Shortly after this Malek Shah died.
A period of civil war followed during which his brother and four sons disputed the empire which was eventually taken over by the third son, Sanjar. He suffered a series of reverses, being held prisoner by Turkomans between 1153 and 1156 during which time the empire was ruled from Khorassan by his favourite sultana. He escaped and died a broken man at the age of 73.
Some 40 years of civil war followed after which Toghrul III, who had united the empire once again, was defeated in battle in 1193 by the ruler of Khaurizm in Tartary, whose son in turn fell victim to Ghenghiz Khan and died in 1220.
. He was succeeded by his infant son, Abu Sayed Behauder, and during his minority the country was plagued by disputes amongst the factious nobles. He died in 1335 of fever in Shirvan and another period of anarchy followed his death which was terminated by the arrival and savage conquest of Timur (1336-1404) to whose successors we give the name Timurids. During this period the governorship of Isfahan was given first to Sharaf Al-Din Al-Muzaffar, and then in 1314 to his son Muzbarriz Al-Din Muhammad. This in turn gave rise to a brief period of Muzaffarid rule in Isfahan
The great Iranian poet Hafez, who celebrated the opening of the wine-shops closed under Mubarriz Al-Din Muhammad, and who is reported to have told Timur that he would exchange Timur's empire for a mole on the cheek of his beloved, wrote of the Muzaffarids as follows:
"Like the house of Inju before them, the sun of this dynasty shone out brightly, but speedily passed from view" - translated Honarfar, p.36.
Although his father had bequeathed the throne to another, by 1409, Timur's fourth and only surviving son, Shah Rukh, had consolidated his position and secured recognition as his father's successor. He established his capital at Herat, married Gawhar Shad, whose name in Farsi means "bright jewel", and mounted expeditions against the Qara-Quiunlu tribesmen in alliance with their rivals the Aq-Quiunlu, who had now sided with the Timurids. Together with his sons he campaigned against these tribesmen suppressing a revolt by Muhammad bin-Baysunghur in Isfahan in 1446, and setting the Qara-Quiunlu chieftain Jahanshah in charge of Azebaijan.
Gawhar Shad's contribution to architecture should not be under-estimated. she commissioned the Friday Mosque in the holy city of Mashad and this in turn acted as an inspiration to Shah Abbas I's architectus when they built his royal mosque in Isfahan.
Legend has it that the tomb of Shahshahan was built by Muhammad bin-Baysunghur in memory of Sheikh 'Ala Al-Din Muhammad who in turn was descended from the third Imam of the Shi'ite, the grandson of the prophet, Al-Hussein. This Sheikh had been executed at the orders of Ghawar Shad for supporting Muhammad's revolt, and this atrocity and the consequent curse was said to have ended the life of Shah Rukh who died some two months later, following which Muhammad returned to Isfahan.
After Shah Rukh's death in 1447, a further period of instability followed but by 1449 Muhammad bin- Baysunghur had regained control of western Iran and Isfahan. Shah Rukh's son, Ulugh Begh, a patron of astronomers, had ruled in Samarkand, until his death at the hands of his own son in 1451. He in turn was succeded by a great-grandson of Timur, and his own nephew, Abu Sai'id, who continued the ancient Timurid feud against the Qara-Quiunlu. In 1467 Jahanshah Qara-Quiunlu marched against the Aq-Quiunlu Ouzun Hassan, and was defeated. When Abu Sa'id sought to re-establish his authority he was taken prisoner and executed and this marked the end of Timurid rule in Western Iran, although Timur's successors continued to hold eastern Iran.
Architecturally in Isfahan this was a period of substantial development. Of particular interest is the tomb of Shahshahan the renovations made to the south-western eivan of the Masjed-e-Jomeh, and the portal leading to the Winter Gallery of the same mosque.
The Masjed-e-Jomeh in Isfahan received a major impetus during the reign of the latter under whose guidance much of the work on the Southern portico was undertaken. He undertook further major repairs to this part of the building between 1475 and 1476. The Darb-e-Imam also dates from this time.
Ouzun Hassan, whose capital was at Tabriz, also received envoys from the Venetians who wanted his help in their wars with the Turks. The envoy they sent reported that his army at that time amounted to 50,000 cavalry.
After Ouzun Hasan's death in 1478 a period of civil war broke out between his two sons, Khalil and Ya'qub. Ya'qub finally triumphed over his brother and held Isfahan from 1479 to 1490. He was followed by his son Baysunghur who in turn was deprived of his power in 1493 by his cousin Rustam who died in 1497. The last of the Aq-Quiunlu, Alvand, was defeated in 1501 by his distant cousin Shah Ismail, who founded the Safavid dynasty.
Before the accession of Shah Ismail I the population of Persia had been chiefly of the Sunni persuasion, but he enforced adherence to the Shi'ite sect, often brutally. Between 1501 and 1587 much of Shah Ismail I's empire had been lost to the Ottomans, he himself suffered a serious defeat at Chaldiran in 1514. With the aid of the British mercenaries, Robert Sherley and his brother, Shah Abbas I developed the use of artillery and succesfuly regained much of the lost land.
Although Abbas I was just and benevolent towards his subjects he was so afraid of his own family that he blinded his sons or incarcerated them in the harem. This meant that his successors were ill -equipped for government. He was succeeded by his grandson, Shah Safi I (1629-1641) who was notorious for the systematic way in which he eliminated every other possible claimant to the throne, including, as the story goes, his own mother. In a fit of intoxication he even stabbed his favourite wife to death. He was succeeded by his ten-year old son, Shah Abbas II (1642-1666), who was initially brought up very strictly by his austere and religious ministers, however, he later adopted a more liberal outlook and threw drunken parties. However this was all within the Court circle, outwardly he seems to have been a kind a liberal monarch, tolerant in religious matters and lenient with his subjects. Many of the finest monuments in Isfahan date from his reign, the Khajou Bridge, The Palaces of Chehel Sotoon, and Talar Ashraf, and the Mosque of Hakim.
He was succeeded by his son Shah Safi (1666-1694), the curious events surrounding whose coronation, were witnessed by Sir John Chardin. Safi was at first thought to be unfit to govern as he was thought to have been blinded, however when he was found to be fully sighted he was immediately crowned. He seems to have suffered like his forbears from alcohol addiction and was constantly ill. So his physician pronounced that he had been crowned at an inauspicious hour and a second coronation was arranged at an astrologically more appropriate time and Shah Safi took the title Suleiman III. He was succeeded in turn by his son Sultan Hussein (1694-1722). This weak and ineffectual monarch lacked the religious tolerance of his father and grandfather, and persecuted the Sufis, He was extremely superstitious and is reported to have discouraged all attempts to save the palace of Chehel Sotoon and its effects from fire, saying it was the will of God which mortals had no right to contest. The Palace of Hasht Behesht, the Madrasa-ye-Nimawar, and the Royal Theological College, the Madrasa-ye-Mader-e-Shah date from his reign, as does the verandah of Chehel Sotoon which he was eventually persuaded to restore. He was eventually overthrown by a small marauding army of 20,000 Afghanis who laid seige to Isfahan during the summer of 1722, reducing the inhabitants, it is said, to cannibalism. Sultan Hussein eventually abdicated on October 22nd, handing over what was left of his empire to the victorious Mahmoud (1722- 1725)
The Safavid period is most notable for the money spent under Abbas I and his successors on the beautification of Isfahan. Many of the most important buildings in the city date from this time, the Sheikh Lotfallah Mosque, The Royal Mosque, and the Palaces of Chehel Sotoon and Ali-Qapu.
There is a touching story concerning Tahmasp's return to Isfahahn. On seeing him enter the city an old woman threw her arms around him and burst into tears. It emerged that she was his mother who, since the occupation of the city by Mahmoud, had disguised herself as a slave to escape being taken to Shiraz as a hostage
The Afghanis were pursued and routed near Persepolis. Ashraf escaped into the desert but was eventually assasinated by a Baluchi in 1729, and his head was sent to Shah Tahmasp.
Ashraf's rule over Isfahan is largely unmarked architecturally. There is an inscription in the Porch of Omar in the Masjed-e-Jomeh, and the remains of the palace of Farahabad south west of the city on the road to Dastgerd which he burnt.
At first Nadir's reign was marked by great successes and liberality, in particular a campaign against India from which he returned so wealthy that he was able to suspend all taxes for three years. during this campaign, his son, Reza Khouli, on hearing a false report of his father's death, had Tahmasp executed. Later he was blamed for a failed assassination attempt and Nadir had him blinded. Reza said "It is not my eyes you have put out but those of Persia". Nadir seems to have bitterly regretted this action. Fifty noblemen who had witnessed the blinding were executed on the grounds that they should have offered up themselves instead, and he became increasingly paranoid, ordering the assassination of large numbers of supposed enemies. At length in 1747, he was assassinated by the captain of his guard at the age of sixty-one. Nadir Shah is thought to be responsible for commissioning the large paintings which hang on the Western wall of the palace of Chehel Sotoon.
He was followed by his nephew 'Ali, who took the title of Adil Shah. He had Reza Khouli along with all but one of Nadir's sons and grandsons executed, sparing only Shah Rukh who was fourteen. He in turn was toppled in a coup by his brother Ibrahim Khan who blinded Adil Shah. Ibrahim was almost immediately deposed and murdered by his own troops and Adil was put to death at the same time. Shah Rukh was put on the throne, deposed, blinded, reinstated deposed and reinstated again. During this time every provincial governor of consequence declared independence and the country was plunged into anarchy, leaving the way open for Karim Khan (1753-1779) to assume the reins of power and start the Zand dynasty.
A further period of turmoil followed his death, as his brother Zuki Khan, his second son Abul Futteh Khan, another brother Sadegh Khan and the latter's stepson 'Ali Murad Khan violently succeeded one another. The latter, after ruling for four years as over-thrown by Sadegh Khan's son Ja'afer Khan, who was poisoned within three years and succeeded by his son Lotf 'Ali Khan. The latter was eventually tricked into losing Shiraz to the first of the Qajars, Agha Mohammad Qajar in 1794. He fled the area and after a series of daring adventures eventually set himself up as king in Kerman. Agha Mohammad gained the town by treachery, slaughtered or blinded every adult male in the city and granted 20,000 of the women and children as slaves to his soldiers. Even amidst all this carnage and bloodshed he failed to capture Lotf 'Ali who escaped. Lotf 'Ali was later betrayed into the hands of Agha Mohammad who tore out his eyes and had him sent to Tehran where he was finally executed.
29-January-95